McDonald and Heard Island
McDonald and Heard Island - Biophysical Processes
McDonald and Heard Islands are located halfway between Australia and South Africa in the Southern Ocean, at approximately 53°S 73°30’E. The islands are approximately 4000 kilometres southwest of Western Australia, 4700 kilometres southeast of Africa and 1000 kilometres north of Antarctica.
Heard Island is the largest in the group of islands at 368 square kilometres. The islands are some of the most remote places in the world.
Heard Island is the largest in the group of islands at 368 square kilometres. The islands are some of the most remote places in the world.
Lithospheric processes
The subantarctic islands are volcanically active, and allow for the study of geomorphic processes and glacial dynamics. Heard Island has experienced volcanic activity and fresh lava flows in the last few decades. This activity is continuing to shape the island including increasing its size and elevation. As a result of volcanic activity all vegetation on the island has been lost.
Hydrospheric processes
Heard Island and the McDonald Islands are located south of the Antarctic Convergence. The Antarctic Convergence is a marine zone where cold waters of the Antarctic sink under the lightly warmer waters of the subantarctic.
Biological processes
Heard Island is considered to be a biological hotspot. There are large colonies of penguins and petrels, and harems of fur seals and elephant seals. There are also high numbers of seabirds and marine mammals.
Vegetation
Due to the diversity of landscapes on the islands a range of different vegetation communities can be found. In the tundra areas vegetation is minimal and includes low shrubs, mosses and liverworts.
Atmospheric processes
The islands are part of the Southern Indian Ocean Islands Tundra ecoregion. The mid-latitude location of the islands in the Southern Ocean is south of the Antarctic Polar Front. This is an area of strong, persistent westerly winds, and associated with a deep low pressure system. East moving depressions move across the islands throughout the year. This results in strong regional strong, westerly winds, frequent precipitation, and low seasonal and daily temperature ranges.
McDonald Islands:
relatively low-lying
free from ice
more stable weather than Heard Island
Monthly average temperatures range from 0.0° to 4.2°C, with an average daily range of 3.7 to 5.2°C in summer and −0.8 to 0.3°C in winter.
Heard Island:
annual precipitation at sea level - 1.3 to 1.9 m
high relative humidity
persistent cloud cover and often-spectacular cloud formulations
predominantly westerly and persistently strong winds
perennial ice cover and mountains impact on local climate. Big Ben the island’s largest mountain has orographic affects on precipitation, snow accumulation winds and cloud cover.
Activity:
Conduct research on the Heard and McDonald Islands. Create a profile of the islands and the biophysical processes that occur there. Refer to the processes that occur in each of the four spheres: atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere.
For a more detail, view:
UNESCO Heard and McDonald Islands
Australia's Heard Island: A mysterious land of fire and ice
Heard and McDonald Islands - FAQs
World Heritage Places - Heard and McDonald Islands
The subantarctic islands are volcanically active, and allow for the study of geomorphic processes and glacial dynamics. Heard Island has experienced volcanic activity and fresh lava flows in the last few decades. This activity is continuing to shape the island including increasing its size and elevation. As a result of volcanic activity all vegetation on the island has been lost.
Hydrospheric processes
Heard Island and the McDonald Islands are located south of the Antarctic Convergence. The Antarctic Convergence is a marine zone where cold waters of the Antarctic sink under the lightly warmer waters of the subantarctic.
Biological processes
Heard Island is considered to be a biological hotspot. There are large colonies of penguins and petrels, and harems of fur seals and elephant seals. There are also high numbers of seabirds and marine mammals.
Vegetation
Due to the diversity of landscapes on the islands a range of different vegetation communities can be found. In the tundra areas vegetation is minimal and includes low shrubs, mosses and liverworts.
Atmospheric processes
The islands are part of the Southern Indian Ocean Islands Tundra ecoregion. The mid-latitude location of the islands in the Southern Ocean is south of the Antarctic Polar Front. This is an area of strong, persistent westerly winds, and associated with a deep low pressure system. East moving depressions move across the islands throughout the year. This results in strong regional strong, westerly winds, frequent precipitation, and low seasonal and daily temperature ranges.
McDonald Islands:
relatively low-lying
free from ice
more stable weather than Heard Island
Monthly average temperatures range from 0.0° to 4.2°C, with an average daily range of 3.7 to 5.2°C in summer and −0.8 to 0.3°C in winter.
Heard Island:
annual precipitation at sea level - 1.3 to 1.9 m
high relative humidity
persistent cloud cover and often-spectacular cloud formulations
predominantly westerly and persistently strong winds
perennial ice cover and mountains impact on local climate. Big Ben the island’s largest mountain has orographic affects on precipitation, snow accumulation winds and cloud cover.
Activity:
Conduct research on the Heard and McDonald Islands. Create a profile of the islands and the biophysical processes that occur there. Refer to the processes that occur in each of the four spheres: atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere.
For a more detail, view:
UNESCO Heard and McDonald Islands
Australia's Heard Island: A mysterious land of fire and ice
Heard and McDonald Islands - FAQs
World Heritage Places - Heard and McDonald Islands
McDonald and Heard Island - Causes of Change
Natural processes
Natural processes are an ongoing cause of change to Heard and McDonald Islands. Processes such as volcanism, glacial retreat and advance and storms can change the landscape. Animal population change such increase in fur seal populations could lead to changes such as competition over breeding or nesting sites and food sources, vegetation trampling and eutrophication of water.
Human contact
The first recorded visit to to Heard Island occurred in 1855. Since that time there have only been about 240 shore-based visits, and only two lists to McDonald Islands. The purpose of visits include sealing (in the past), research and management, private expeditions and surveillance. Visitors must apply to the Australian Antarctic Division for a permit to visit Heard Island. It’s vast distance from populated areas, extreme weather and sailing conditions and high cost to visit deter many visitors. No commercial tours operate to Heard Island.
Introduced Species
An alien species is an organism that has been introduced to the Heard Island and McDonald Islands as a result of direct or indirect human activity. Many of the Southern Ocean islands have been affected by introduced species such as cats, rabbits, rodents, etc. which can impact on breeding populations of endemic species and result in reductions of biodiversity and local extinctions. Mcdonald Island has no alien species currently. Heard Island has two plants and two insect species that have been introduced. Heard Island and McDonald Islands are some of the least biologically-disturbed regions on the planet.
Physical disturbance
Physical disturbance could include pathways, soil and vegetation compaction, damage to geological features, buildings or destruction of cultural artefacts. Most of Heard and McDonald Islands are free from physical disturbance as a result of a limited number of recorded visits. This is one of the islands’ greatest values.
Climate change
There has been an increase in the average annual air temperature of nearly 1 degree C between 1948 to 1954 and 1997 to 2001. This is resulting in glacial retreat and the creation of lagoon and lakes. Many glacier at Heard Island have retreated dramatically. The Southern Ocean is demonstrating a corresponding warming.
Wildlife disturbances
In locations where human activity and wildlife habitat overlap, wildlife disturbances such as burrow collapses, changes to wildlife movements or breeding can occur. Wildlife colonies on Heard and McDonald Islands are concentrated in the ice-free coastal areas. These are also the most popular sites for human activities. Wildlife may react to disturbances by to relocate or refrain from breeding, or deserting certain locations. It can also result in increased likelihood of mortality rates. In marine environments disturbances may take the form of boat collisions, or interference through noise and lights. Illegal fishing can also impact on population numbers and diversity.
Marine pollution
Fuel spills, discharge of waste water and sewage and rubbish disposal can result from shipping activities. Marine mammals and seabirds can become entangled in floating debris such as discarded fishing nets. This can result in reduced mobility, starvation, amputation, smothering or drowning.
Terrestrial pollution
Pollution on land can include grey water and sewage, which may increase nutrients or risk of disease. Fuel and chemical spills could result in long lasting impacts such as soil contamination, vegetation degradation or harm to wildlife.
Natural processes are an ongoing cause of change to Heard and McDonald Islands. Processes such as volcanism, glacial retreat and advance and storms can change the landscape. Animal population change such increase in fur seal populations could lead to changes such as competition over breeding or nesting sites and food sources, vegetation trampling and eutrophication of water.
Human contact
The first recorded visit to to Heard Island occurred in 1855. Since that time there have only been about 240 shore-based visits, and only two lists to McDonald Islands. The purpose of visits include sealing (in the past), research and management, private expeditions and surveillance. Visitors must apply to the Australian Antarctic Division for a permit to visit Heard Island. It’s vast distance from populated areas, extreme weather and sailing conditions and high cost to visit deter many visitors. No commercial tours operate to Heard Island.
Introduced Species
An alien species is an organism that has been introduced to the Heard Island and McDonald Islands as a result of direct or indirect human activity. Many of the Southern Ocean islands have been affected by introduced species such as cats, rabbits, rodents, etc. which can impact on breeding populations of endemic species and result in reductions of biodiversity and local extinctions. Mcdonald Island has no alien species currently. Heard Island has two plants and two insect species that have been introduced. Heard Island and McDonald Islands are some of the least biologically-disturbed regions on the planet.
Physical disturbance
Physical disturbance could include pathways, soil and vegetation compaction, damage to geological features, buildings or destruction of cultural artefacts. Most of Heard and McDonald Islands are free from physical disturbance as a result of a limited number of recorded visits. This is one of the islands’ greatest values.
Climate change
There has been an increase in the average annual air temperature of nearly 1 degree C between 1948 to 1954 and 1997 to 2001. This is resulting in glacial retreat and the creation of lagoon and lakes. Many glacier at Heard Island have retreated dramatically. The Southern Ocean is demonstrating a corresponding warming.
Wildlife disturbances
In locations where human activity and wildlife habitat overlap, wildlife disturbances such as burrow collapses, changes to wildlife movements or breeding can occur. Wildlife colonies on Heard and McDonald Islands are concentrated in the ice-free coastal areas. These are also the most popular sites for human activities. Wildlife may react to disturbances by to relocate or refrain from breeding, or deserting certain locations. It can also result in increased likelihood of mortality rates. In marine environments disturbances may take the form of boat collisions, or interference through noise and lights. Illegal fishing can also impact on population numbers and diversity.
Marine pollution
Fuel spills, discharge of waste water and sewage and rubbish disposal can result from shipping activities. Marine mammals and seabirds can become entangled in floating debris such as discarded fishing nets. This can result in reduced mobility, starvation, amputation, smothering or drowning.
Terrestrial pollution
Pollution on land can include grey water and sewage, which may increase nutrients or risk of disease. Fuel and chemical spills could result in long lasting impacts such as soil contamination, vegetation degradation or harm to wildlife.
Heard and McDonald Islands - Management
The Australian Antarctic Division of the Australian Department of Environment and Energy manages Heard Island and McDonald Islands and the HIMI (Heard Island and McDonald Islands) Marine Reserve. A management plan is in place for the HIMI Reserve. The management plan sets out rules and guideline of the Reserve, objectives for managing the area, and specific management strategies including permits, zoning and environmental impact assessments.
Legislation and agreements
The most relevant legislation is:
Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000
Environmental Protection and Management Ordinance 1987
These provide a national framework for environmental protection. Click to read about:
EPBC Act and regulations.
National agreements
International agreements
World Heritage
Heard and McDonald Islands are listed on the UNESCO World Heritage list. To be listed as a World Heritage Site, a location must meet UNESCO’s WHS criteria.
The HIMI Reserve and World Heritage Site provides an opportunity to observe ongoing geomorphic processes, as they are the only volcanically active subantarctic islands. It meets criteria (viii) to be an outstanding example representing major stages of earth’s history including the record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features.
The HIMI Reserve and World Heritage Site has no record of introduced species and is is extremely isolated. Its natural processes include glacial dynamics and coastal change. HIMI will be an important place to monitor the impacts of climate change, and as such meets criteria (ix) to be an outstanding example representing significant on-going ecological and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plants and animals.
Zoning
Zoning is used to divide areas of the Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve into sections where particular activities are allowed. Zoning allows some more susceptible areas of the reserve to be afforded greater protection than others, while more human activities are allowed in less susceptible areas. The zones are:
Main Use Zone – located at Atlas Cove and Spit Bay. This is where long-term facilities are located and access and support operation can be conducted.
Visitor Access Zone – allows for low impact, short-term, land-based visitor activities, e.g. tourist ships. This zone provides relatively safe landing sites and access to attractions within walking distance, e.g. heritage sites, wildlife colonies, landscape features.
Wilderness Zone – allows for some human activities, but with the purpose to maintain the wilderness qualities of the terrestrial environment. Activities must not cause long-term impacts. Access is primarily for scientific research and monitoring.
Heritage Zone – an area of special protection, this is the location of the Atlas Cove Station site from 1947-1955. It restricts activities that may impact on the heritage value on the site.
Restricted Zone – areas highly sensitive to human activities. Access is highly restricted. This includes areas containing highly unstable lava tubes and sinkholes, cushion plants, significant numbers of South Georgian diving petrels and breeding sites for Antarctic prions.
Inner Marine Zone – includes areas within 12 nautical miles of the high tide mark on shore. Vessel and small craft use is regulated, to reduce the threats from boat discharges and movements.
Outer Marine Zone – includes areas beyond 12 nautical miles from shore to the edge of the Reserve. Regulations are less strict in this area, but still allow for protection in line with the objectives of the Reserve. A permit is not required into the Outer Marine Zone.
Environmental Approvals
Permits to visit the HIMI Reserve need to be submitted 4 months in advance. Visitors may only enter the Reserve in accordance with the permit. Permits state that people must not take, injure and interfere with organisms, except under very specific circumstances. Permits restrict visitors from interfering with scientific experiments underway and/or introduction of live species to the islands. Permits forbid bringing a diseased organism or live poultry into the Reserve, or mineral extraction and/or fishing. Before a permit is issued an environmental impact report must be submitted. Permit holders also have to be completely self-sufficient while in the Reserve, and must provide a compliance report within 60 days of the permit expiring.
Visitors rules
- all wastes generated must be removed on departure.
- food must be secured to limit foraging and dispersal by wildlife
- no overnight stays are allowed
- only set numbers of visitors are allowed on site
- foot travel is the only form of transport allowed within the Visitor Access Zone, Main Use Zone and Heritage Zone.
- visitors onshore must be able to maintain two-way communication with their vessels.
- shore landings can only take place in the Main Use Zone and the Visitor Access Zone.
- boats/vessels must minimise lights to avoid disturbance to birds.
- no ballast water can be discharged within 12 nautical miles of the chore.
- vessels entering the Territory must have come directly from an Australian Quarantine Inspections Service and have a deratting certificate.
- all visitors are provided with the Environmental Code of Conduct for Visitors to Heard Island.
Legislation and agreements
The most relevant legislation is:
Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000
Environmental Protection and Management Ordinance 1987
These provide a national framework for environmental protection. Click to read about:
EPBC Act and regulations.
National agreements
International agreements
World Heritage
Heard and McDonald Islands are listed on the UNESCO World Heritage list. To be listed as a World Heritage Site, a location must meet UNESCO’s WHS criteria.
The HIMI Reserve and World Heritage Site provides an opportunity to observe ongoing geomorphic processes, as they are the only volcanically active subantarctic islands. It meets criteria (viii) to be an outstanding example representing major stages of earth’s history including the record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features.
The HIMI Reserve and World Heritage Site has no record of introduced species and is is extremely isolated. Its natural processes include glacial dynamics and coastal change. HIMI will be an important place to monitor the impacts of climate change, and as such meets criteria (ix) to be an outstanding example representing significant on-going ecological and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plants and animals.
Zoning
Zoning is used to divide areas of the Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve into sections where particular activities are allowed. Zoning allows some more susceptible areas of the reserve to be afforded greater protection than others, while more human activities are allowed in less susceptible areas. The zones are:
Main Use Zone – located at Atlas Cove and Spit Bay. This is where long-term facilities are located and access and support operation can be conducted.
Visitor Access Zone – allows for low impact, short-term, land-based visitor activities, e.g. tourist ships. This zone provides relatively safe landing sites and access to attractions within walking distance, e.g. heritage sites, wildlife colonies, landscape features.
Wilderness Zone – allows for some human activities, but with the purpose to maintain the wilderness qualities of the terrestrial environment. Activities must not cause long-term impacts. Access is primarily for scientific research and monitoring.
Heritage Zone – an area of special protection, this is the location of the Atlas Cove Station site from 1947-1955. It restricts activities that may impact on the heritage value on the site.
Restricted Zone – areas highly sensitive to human activities. Access is highly restricted. This includes areas containing highly unstable lava tubes and sinkholes, cushion plants, significant numbers of South Georgian diving petrels and breeding sites for Antarctic prions.
Inner Marine Zone – includes areas within 12 nautical miles of the high tide mark on shore. Vessel and small craft use is regulated, to reduce the threats from boat discharges and movements.
Outer Marine Zone – includes areas beyond 12 nautical miles from shore to the edge of the Reserve. Regulations are less strict in this area, but still allow for protection in line with the objectives of the Reserve. A permit is not required into the Outer Marine Zone.
Environmental Approvals
Permits to visit the HIMI Reserve need to be submitted 4 months in advance. Visitors may only enter the Reserve in accordance with the permit. Permits state that people must not take, injure and interfere with organisms, except under very specific circumstances. Permits restrict visitors from interfering with scientific experiments underway and/or introduction of live species to the islands. Permits forbid bringing a diseased organism or live poultry into the Reserve, or mineral extraction and/or fishing. Before a permit is issued an environmental impact report must be submitted. Permit holders also have to be completely self-sufficient while in the Reserve, and must provide a compliance report within 60 days of the permit expiring.
Visitors rules
- all wastes generated must be removed on departure.
- food must be secured to limit foraging and dispersal by wildlife
- no overnight stays are allowed
- only set numbers of visitors are allowed on site
- foot travel is the only form of transport allowed within the Visitor Access Zone, Main Use Zone and Heritage Zone.
- visitors onshore must be able to maintain two-way communication with their vessels.
- shore landings can only take place in the Main Use Zone and the Visitor Access Zone.
- boats/vessels must minimise lights to avoid disturbance to birds.
- no ballast water can be discharged within 12 nautical miles of the chore.
- vessels entering the Territory must have come directly from an Australian Quarantine Inspections Service and have a deratting certificate.
- all visitors are provided with the Environmental Code of Conduct for Visitors to Heard Island.
Mapping: Heard Island
View the Heard Island topographic map.
What is the latitude and longitude for:
- Magnet Point
- Rogers Head
- Mangoro Head
- Kildalkey Head
- Corinth Head
Determine the direction from:
- Cape Cartwright to Vanhoffen Bluff
- Atlas Cove to Sydney Cover
- Sealers Corner to West Cape
- Magent Point to West Bay
Determine the area reference for:
- Rogers Head
- Atlas Cove
- Corinth Head
- Magnet Point
Determine the grid reference for:
- West Cape
- Saddle Point
- Wharf Point
- Red Island
What is the local relief from 830280 to 840270?
What is the local relief from 860240 to 870250?
What is the latitude and longitude for:
- Magnet Point
- Rogers Head
- Mangoro Head
- Kildalkey Head
- Corinth Head
Determine the direction from:
- Cape Cartwright to Vanhoffen Bluff
- Atlas Cove to Sydney Cover
- Sealers Corner to West Cape
- Magent Point to West Bay
Determine the area reference for:
- Rogers Head
- Atlas Cove
- Corinth Head
- Magnet Point
Determine the grid reference for:
- West Cape
- Saddle Point
- Wharf Point
- Red Island
What is the local relief from 830280 to 840270?
What is the local relief from 860240 to 870250?
